Ren Sun

Quantitative Imaging of Single, Unstained Viruses with Coherent X-rays (2008)

Song, Changyong, Jiang, Huaidong, Mancuso, Adrian, Amirbekian, Bagrat, Peng, Li, Sun, Ren, ...

Since Perutz, Kendrew and colleagues unveiled the structure of hemoglobin and myoglobin based on X-ray diffraction analysis in the 1950s, X-ray crystallography has become the primary methodology used...

A Novel Inhibitory Mechanism of Mitochondrion-Dependent Apoptosis by a Herpesviral Protein (2007)

Pinghui Feng, Chengyu Liang, Young C. Shin, Xiaofei E, Weijun Zhang, Robyn Gravel, ...

Upon viral infection, cells undergo apoptosis as a defense against viral replication. Viruses, in turn, have evolved elaborate mechanisms to subvert apoptotic processes. Here, we report that a novel...

Dynamic cell and microparticle control via optoelectronic tweezers (2007)

Ohta, Aaron Takami, Chiou, Pei-Yu, Han, Tae H., Liao, James C., Bhardwaj, Urvashi, McCabe, Edward R. B., ...

This paper reports on cell and microparticle manipulation using optically induced dielectrophoresis. Our novel optoelectronic tweezers (OET) device enables optically controlled trapping,...

Dynamic cell and microparticle control via optoelectronic tweezers (2007)

Ohta, Aaron T., Chiou, Pei-Yu, Han, Tae H., Liao, James C., Bhardwaj, Urvashi, McCabe, Edward R.B., ...

This paper reports on cell and microparticle manipulation using optically induced dielectrophoresis. Our novel optoelectronic tweezers (OET) device enables optically controlled trapping,...

Systematic Identification of Cellular Signals Reactivating Kaposi Sarcoma–Associated Herpesvirus (2007)

Fuqu Yu, Josephine N. Harada, Helen J. Brown, Hongyu Deng, Moon Jung Song, Ting-Ting Wu, ...

The herpesvirus life cycle has two distinct phases: latency and lytic replication. The balance between these two phases is critical for viral pathogenesis. It is believed that cellular signals...

A viral gene that activates lytic cycle expression of Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus

Sun, Ren, Lin, Su-Fang, Gradoville, Lyndle, Yuan, Yan, Zhu, Fanxiu, Miller, George

Herpesviruses exist in two states, latency and a lytic productive cycle. Here we identify an immediate-early gene encoded by Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV)/human herpesvirus eight...

Cellular Tropism and Viral Interleukin-6 Expression Distinguish Human Herpesvirus 8 Involvement in Kaposi’s Sarcoma, Primary Effusion Lymphoma, and Multicentric Castleman’s Disease

Staskus, Katherine A., Sun, Ren, Miller, George, Racz, Paul, Jaslowski, Anthony, Metroka, Craig, ...

Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) infection has been implicated in the etiology of Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS), primary effusion lymphoma (PEL), and multicentric Castleman’s disease (MCD), three diseases...

Kinetics of Kaposi’s Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus Gene Expression

Sun, Ren, Lin, Su-Fang, Staskus, Katherine, Gradoville, Lyndle, Grogan, Elizabeth, Haase, Ashley, ...

Herpesvirus gene expression can be classified into four distinct kinetic stages: latent, immediate early, early, and late. Here we characterize the kinetic class of a group of 16 Kaposi’s...

Rta of Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68 Reactivates the Complete Lytic Cycle from Latency

Wu, Ting-Ting, Usherwood, Edward J., Stewart, James P., Nash, Anthony A., Sun, Ren

Herpesviruses are characterized as having two distinct life cycle phases: lytic replication and latency. The mechanisms of latency establishment and maintenance, as well as the switch from latency to...

Transcription Activation of Polyadenylated Nuclear RNA by Rta in Human Herpesvirus 8/Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus

Song, Moon Jung, Brown, Helen J., Wu, Ting-Ting, Sun, Ren

Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) (also known as Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus) encodes a novel noncoding polyadenylated nuclear (PAN) RNA (also known as T1.1 or nut-1) during the early phase of...

Function of Rta Is Essential for Lytic Replication of Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68

Wu, Ting-Ting, Tong, Leming, Rickabaugh, Tammy, Speck, Samuel, Sun, Ren

Rta, encoded primarily by open reading frame 50, is well conserved among gammaherpesviruses. It has been shown that the Rta proteins of Epstein Barr virus (EBV), Kaposi's sarcoma-associated...

Characterization of Interactions between RTA and the Promoter of Polyadenylated Nuclear RNA in Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus/Human Herpesvirus 8

Song, Moon Jung, Li, Xudong, Brown, Helen J., Sun, Ren

RTA (replication and transcription activator; also referred to as ORF50, Lyta, and ART), an immediate-early gene product of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV)/human herpesvirus 8,...

Inhibition of Gammaherpesvirus Replication by RNA Interference

Jia, Qingmei, Sun, Ren

RNA interference (RNAi) is a conserved mechanism in which double-stranded, small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) trigger a sequence-specific gene-silencing process. Here we describe the inhibition of...

NF-κB Inhibits Gammaherpesvirus Lytic Replication

Brown, Helen J., Song, Moon Jung, Deng, Hongyu, Wu, Ting-Ting, Cheng, Genhong, Sun, Ren

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma, Kaposi's sarcoma, and B-cell lymphomas are human malignancies associated with gammaherpesvirus infections. Members of this virus family are characterized by their ability to...

Comparative Study of Regulation of RTA-Responsive Genes in Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus/Human Herpesvirus 8

Song, Moon Jung, Deng, Hongyu, Sun, Ren

Replication and transcription activator (RTA) (also referred to as ORF50), an immediate-early gene product of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV)/(human herpesvirus 8), plays a critical...

Transcription Program of Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68

Martinez-Guzman, DeeAnn, Rickabaugh, Tammy, Wu, Ting-Ting, Brown, Helen, Cole, Steven, Song, Moon Jung, ...

Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68 [also referred to as γHV68]) is phylogenetically related to Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV [also referred to as HHV-8]) and Epstein-Barr virus...

COX-2 Induction during Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68 Infection Leads to Enhancement of Viral Gene Expression

Symensma , Tonia L., Martinez-Guzman, DeeAnn, Jia, Qingmei, Bortz, Eric, Wu, Ting-Ting, Rudra-Ganguly, Nandini, ...

The murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68 or γHV-68) model provides many advantages for studying virus-host interactions involved in gammaherpesvirus replication, including the role of cellular...

Identification of Proteins Associated with Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68 Virions

Bortz, Eric, Whitelegge, Julian P., Jia, Qingmei, Zhou, Z. Hong, Stewart, James P., Wu, Ting-Ting, ...

Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV68 [also known as γHV-68]) is distinguished by its ability to replicate to high titers in cultured cells, making it an excellent candidate for studying...

Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68 Open Reading Frame 31 Is Required for Viral Replication

Jia, Qingmei, Wu, Ting-Ting, Liao, Hsiang-I, Chernishof, Vasili, Sun, Ren

Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68) is genetically related to the human gammaherpesviruses, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV/HHV-8) and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). It has been proposed as...

Identification of cis Sequences Required for Lytic DNA Replication and Packaging of Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68

Deng, Hongyu, Chu, Julia T., Park, No-Hee, Sun, Ren

Human gammaherpesviruses are associated with lymphomas and other malignancies. Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68) infection of mice has emerged as a model for understanding gammaherpesvirus...

Generation of a Latency-Deficient Gammaherpesvirus That Is Protective against Secondary Infection

Rickabaugh, Tammy M., Brown, Helen J., Martinez-Guzman, DeeAnn, Wu, Ting-Ting, Tong, Leming, Yu, Fuqu, ...

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus and murine gammaherpesvirus-68 (MHV-68) establish latent infections and are associated with various types of malignancies. They are members of the gamma-2...

The DNA Architectural Protein HMGB1 Facilitates RTA-Mediated Viral Gene Expression in Gamma-2 Herpesviruses

Jung Song, Moon, Hwang, Seungmin, Wong, Wendy, Round, June, Martinez-Guzman, DeeAnn, Turpaz, Yaron, ...

Replication and transcription activator (RTA), an immediate-early gene product of gamma-2 herpesviruses including Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) and murine gamma herpesvirus 68...

Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus/Human Herpesvirus 8 RTA Reactivates Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68 from Latency

Rickabaugh, Tammy M., Brown, Helen J., Wu, Ting-Ting, Song, Moon Jung, Hwang, Seungmin, Deng, Hongyu, ...

Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68), Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (HHV-8), and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) are all members of the gammaherpesvirus family, characterized by their ability to...

Identification of viral genes essential for replication of murine γ-herpesvirus 68 using signature-tagged mutagenesis

Song, Moon Jung, Hwang, Seungmin, Wong, Wendy H., Wu, Ting-Ting, Lee, Sangmi, Liao, Hsiang-I, ...

γ-Herpesviruses, Epstein–Barr virus, and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus are important human pathogens, because they are involved in tumor development. Murine γ-herpesvirus-68 (MHV-68 or...

Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68 Open Reading Frame 45 Plays an Essential Role during the Immediate-Early Phase of Viral Replication

Jia, Qingmei, Chernishof, Vasili, Bortz, Eric, Mchardy, Ian, Wu, Ting-Ting, Liao, Hsiang-I, ...

Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68) has been developed as a model for the human gammaherpesviruses Epstein-Barr virus and human herpesvirus 8/Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (HHV-8/KSHV),...

β-Adrenoreceptors Reactivate Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus Lytic Replication via PKA-Dependent Control of Viral RTA

Chang, Margaret, Brown, Helen J., Collado-Hidalgo, Alicia, Arevalo, Jesusa M., Galic, Zoran, Symensma, Tonia L., ...

Reactivation of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) lytic replication is mediated by the viral RTA transcription factor, but little is known about the physiological processes controlling...

Transcriptional Regulation of the Interleukin-6 Gene of Human Herpesvirus 8 (Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus)

Deng, Hongyu, Song, Moon Jung, Chu, Julia T., Sun, Ren

Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8; Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus is linked to Kaposi's sarcoma (KS), primary effusion lymphoma (PEL), and multicentric Castleman's disease (MCD), all of which are...

A viral gene that activates lytic cycle expression of Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus

Sun, Ren, Lin, Su-Fang, Gradoville, Lyndle, Yuan, Yan, Zhu, Fanxiu, Miller, George

Herpesviruses exist in two states, latency and a lytic productive cycle. Here we identify an immediate-early gene encoded by Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV)/human herpesvirus eight...

Cellular Tropism and Viral Interleukin-6 Expression Distinguish Human Herpesvirus 8 Involvement in Kaposi’s Sarcoma, Primary Effusion Lymphoma, and Multicentric Castleman’s Disease

Staskus, Katherine A., Sun, Ren, Miller, George, Racz, Paul, Jaslowski, Anthony, Metroka, Craig, ...

Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) infection has been implicated in the etiology of Kaposi’s sarcoma (KS), primary effusion lymphoma (PEL), and multicentric Castleman’s disease (MCD), three diseases...

Kinetics of Kaposi’s Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus Gene Expression

Sun, Ren, Lin, Su-Fang, Staskus, Katherine, Gradoville, Lyndle, Grogan, Elizabeth, Haase, Ashley, ...

Herpesvirus gene expression can be classified into four distinct kinetic stages: latent, immediate early, early, and late. Here we characterize the kinetic class of a group of 16 Kaposi’s...

Rta of Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68 Reactivates the Complete Lytic Cycle from Latency

Wu, Ting-Ting, Usherwood, Edward J., Stewart, James P., Nash, Anthony A., Sun, Ren

Herpesviruses are characterized as having two distinct life cycle phases: lytic replication and latency. The mechanisms of latency establishment and maintenance, as well as the switch from latency to...

Transcription Activation of Polyadenylated Nuclear RNA by Rta in Human Herpesvirus 8/Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus

Song, Moon Jung, Brown, Helen J., Wu, Ting-Ting, Sun, Ren

Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) (also known as Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus) encodes a novel noncoding polyadenylated nuclear (PAN) RNA (also known as T1.1 or nut-1) during the early phase of...

Function of Rta Is Essential for Lytic Replication of Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68

Wu, Ting-Ting, Tong, Leming, Rickabaugh, Tammy, Speck, Samuel, Sun, Ren

Rta, encoded primarily by open reading frame 50, is well conserved among gammaherpesviruses. It has been shown that the Rta proteins of Epstein Barr virus (EBV), Kaposi's sarcoma-associated...

Characterization of Interactions between RTA and the Promoter of Polyadenylated Nuclear RNA in Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus/Human Herpesvirus 8

Song, Moon Jung, Li, Xudong, Brown, Helen J., Sun, Ren

RTA (replication and transcription activator; also referred to as ORF50, Lyta, and ART), an immediate-early gene product of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV)/human herpesvirus 8,...

Inhibition of Gammaherpesvirus Replication by RNA Interference

Jia, Qingmei, Sun, Ren

RNA interference (RNAi) is a conserved mechanism in which double-stranded, small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) trigger a sequence-specific gene-silencing process. Here we describe the inhibition of...

Transcriptional Regulation of the Interleukin-6 Gene of Human Herpesvirus 8 (Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus)

Deng, Hongyu, Song, Moon Jung, Chu, Julia T., Sun, Ren

Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8; Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus is linked to Kaposi's sarcoma (KS), primary effusion lymphoma (PEL), and multicentric Castleman's disease (MCD), all of which are...

NF-κB Inhibits Gammaherpesvirus Lytic Replication

Brown, Helen J., Song, Moon Jung, Deng, Hongyu, Wu, Ting-Ting, Cheng, Genhong, Sun, Ren

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma, Kaposi's sarcoma, and B-cell lymphomas are human malignancies associated with gammaherpesvirus infections. Members of this virus family are characterized by their ability to...

Comparative Study of Regulation of RTA-Responsive Genes in Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus/Human Herpesvirus 8

Song, Moon Jung, Deng, Hongyu, Sun, Ren

Replication and transcription activator (RTA) (also referred to as ORF50), an immediate-early gene product of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV)/(human herpesvirus 8), plays a critical...

Transcription Program of Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68

Martinez-Guzman, DeeAnn, Rickabaugh, Tammy, Wu, Ting-Ting, Brown, Helen, Cole, Steven, Song, Moon Jung, ...

Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68 [also referred to as γHV68]) is phylogenetically related to Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV [also referred to as HHV-8]) and Epstein-Barr virus...

COX-2 Induction during Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68 Infection Leads to Enhancement of Viral Gene Expression

Symensma , Tonia L., Martinez-Guzman, DeeAnn, Jia, Qingmei, Bortz, Eric, Wu, Ting-Ting, Rudra-Ganguly, Nandini, ...

The murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68 or γHV-68) model provides many advantages for studying virus-host interactions involved in gammaherpesvirus replication, including the role of cellular...

Identification of Proteins Associated with Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68 Virions

Bortz, Eric, Whitelegge, Julian P., Jia, Qingmei, Zhou, Z. Hong, Stewart, James P., Wu, Ting-Ting, ...

Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV68 [also known as γHV-68]) is distinguished by its ability to replicate to high titers in cultured cells, making it an excellent candidate for studying...

Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68 Open Reading Frame 31 Is Required for Viral Replication

Jia, Qingmei, Wu, Ting-Ting, Liao, Hsiang-I, Chernishof, Vasili, Sun, Ren

Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68) is genetically related to the human gammaherpesviruses, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV/HHV-8) and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). It has been proposed as...

Identification of cis Sequences Required for Lytic DNA Replication and Packaging of Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68

Deng, Hongyu, Chu, Julia T., Park, No-Hee, Sun, Ren

Human gammaherpesviruses are associated with lymphomas and other malignancies. Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68) infection of mice has emerged as a model for understanding gammaherpesvirus...

Generation of a Latency-Deficient Gammaherpesvirus That Is Protective against Secondary Infection

Rickabaugh, Tammy M., Brown, Helen J., Martinez-Guzman, DeeAnn, Wu, Ting-Ting, Tong, Leming, Yu, Fuqu, ...

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus and murine gammaherpesvirus-68 (MHV-68) establish latent infections and are associated with various types of malignancies. They are members of the gamma-2...

The DNA Architectural Protein HMGB1 Facilitates RTA-Mediated Viral Gene Expression in Gamma-2 Herpesviruses

Jung Song, Moon, Hwang, Seungmin, Wong, Wendy, Round, June, Martinez-Guzman, DeeAnn, Turpaz, Yaron, ...

Replication and transcription activator (RTA), an immediate-early gene product of gamma-2 herpesviruses including Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) and murine gamma herpesvirus 68...

Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus/Human Herpesvirus 8 RTA Reactivates Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68 from Latency

Rickabaugh, Tammy M., Brown, Helen J., Wu, Ting-Ting, Song, Moon Jung, Hwang, Seungmin, Deng, Hongyu, ...

Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68), Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (HHV-8), and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) are all members of the gammaherpesvirus family, characterized by their ability to...

Identification of viral genes essential for replication of murine γ-herpesvirus 68 using signature-tagged mutagenesis

Song, Moon Jung, Hwang, Seungmin, Wong, Wendy H., Wu, Ting-Ting, Lee, Sangmi, Liao, Hsiang-I, ...

γ-Herpesviruses, Epstein–Barr virus, and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus are important human pathogens, because they are involved in tumor development. Murine γ-herpesvirus-68 (MHV-68 or...

Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68 Open Reading Frame 45 Plays an Essential Role during the Immediate-Early Phase of Viral Replication

Jia, Qingmei, Chernishof, Vasili, Bortz, Eric, Mchardy, Ian, Wu, Ting-Ting, Liao, Hsiang-I, ...

Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68) has been developed as a model for the human gammaherpesviruses Epstein-Barr virus and human herpesvirus 8/Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (HHV-8/KSHV),...

β-Adrenoreceptors Reactivate Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus Lytic Replication via PKA-Dependent Control of Viral RTA

Chang, Margaret, Brown, Helen J., Collado-Hidalgo, Alicia, Arevalo, Jesusa M., Galic, Zoran, Symensma, Tonia L., ...

Reactivation of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) lytic replication is mediated by the viral RTA transcription factor, but little is known about the physiological processes controlling...

ORF18 Is a Transfactor That Is Essential for Late Gene Transcription of a Gammaherpesvirus

Arumugaswami, Vaithilingaraja, Wu, Ting-Ting, Martinez-Guzman, DeeAnn, Jia, Qingmei, Deng, Hongyu, Reyes, Nichole, ...

Lytic replication of the tumor-associated human gammaherpesviruses Epstein-Barr virus and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus has important implications in pathogenesis and tumorigenesis....

Systematic Identification of Cellular Signals Reactivating Kaposi Sarcoma–Associated Herpesvirus

Yu, Fuqu, Harada, Josephine N, Brown, Helen J, Deng, Hongyu, Song, Moon Jung, Wu, Ting-Ting, ...

The herpesvirus life cycle has two distinct phases: latency and lytic replication. The balance between these two phases is critical for viral pathogenesis. It is believed that cellular signals...

Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68 Open Reading Frame 24 Is Required for Late Gene Expression after DNA Replication▿

Wong, Elaine, Wu, Ting-Ting, Reyes, Nichole, Deng, Hongyu, Sun, Ren

Open reading frame 24 (ORF24) of murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68) is conserved among beta- and gammaherpesviruses; however, its function in viral replication has not been defined. Using MHV-68 as...

Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68 ORF52 Encodes a Tegument Protein Required for Virion Morphogenesis in the Cytoplasm▿

Bortz, Eric, Wang, Lili, Jia, Qingmei, Wu, Ting-Ting, Whitelegge, Julian P., Deng, Hongyu, ...

The tegument, a semiordered matrix of proteins overlying the nucleocapsid and underlying the virion envelope, in viruses in the gamma subfamily of Herpesviridae is poorly understood. Murine...

The ORF49 Protein of Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68 Cooperates with RTA in Regulating Virus Replication▿

Lee, Sangmi, Cho, Hye-Jeong, Park, Jung-Jin, Kim, Yong-Sun, Hwang, Seungmin, Sun, Ren, ...

Our functional mapping study of murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV-68, or γHV-68) revealed that a mutant harboring a transposon at the ORF49 locus (ORF49null) evidenced a highly attenuated in vitro...

A Novel Inhibitory Mechanism of Mitochondrion-Dependent Apoptosis by a Herpesviral Protein

Feng, Pinghui, Liang, Chengyu, Shin, Young C, E, Xiaofei, Zhang, Weijun, Gravel, Robyn, ...

Upon viral infection, cells undergo apoptosis as a defense against viral replication. Viruses, in turn, have evolved elaborate mechanisms to subvert apoptotic processes. Here, we report that a novel...

A Repetitive Region of Gammaherpesvirus Genomic DNA Is a Ligand for Induction of Type I Interferon▿

Sanchez, David Jesse, Miranda, Daniel, Arumugaswami, Vaithilingaraja, Hwang, Seungmin, Singer, Adam E., Senaati, Ashkon, ...

Innate immune responses against viral infection, especially the induction of type I interferon, are critical for limiting the replication of the virus. Although it has been shown that DNA can induce...